An Essay of Dramatic Poesy by John Dryden

 

1. Introduction

·         Written in 1668, during the Restoration period, while London theatres had reopened after being closed during the Puritan rule.

·         Dryden (1631–1700): Poet Laureate, first major English literary critic.

·         An Essay on Dramatic Poesy is a dialogue between four characters, set against the backdrop of the Second Dutch War (1665).

·         Aim: To defend the value of drama and establish English drama’s worth compared to classical and French models.

2. Structure and Form

·         A dialogue in prose, not a formal treatise.

·         Four interlocutors:

o    Crites → defends the ancients (classical drama).

o    Eugenius → supports the moderns (English dramatists of the time).

o    Lisideius → argues for French drama (regular, rule-bound, neoclassical).

o    Neander (represents Dryden) → defends English drama, especially Shakespeare.

3. Central Issues Discussed

(a) Ancients vs Moderns

·         Crites: Ancient dramatists (Aristotle, Sophocles, Euripides, Plautus, Terence) set the rules; moderns merely imitate them.

·         Eugenius: Moderns improve upon the ancients in characterization, plot complexity, and natural dialogue.

(b) French vs English Drama

·         Lisideius praises French drama:

o    Observes three unities (time, place, action).

o    Structured, elegant, decorous.

o    Avoids mixing tragedy with comedy.

o    More believable and morally instructive.

·         Neander (Dryden) defends English drama:

o    Richer variety: blends tragedy and comedy (tragi-comedy).

o    More realistic representation of life.

o    Use of subplots adds depth.

o    Greater emotional impact; appeals to human nature more vividly.

o    Shakespeare praised for “larger, looser, and freer” spirit, even if he broke classical rules.

(c) Use of Rhyme in Drama

·         Contemporary debate: blank verse vs rhymed verse.

·         Neander/Dryden argues:

o    Rhyme adds decorum, elevation, and delight.

o    Helps structure and control expression.

o    Blank verse is too close to prose, lacks the polish needed for drama.

4. Dryden’s Critical Positions

·         Drama as imitation (follows Aristotle’s mimesis).

·         The end of drama is delight and instruction (Horatian principle).

·         Rules vs genius: Rules (classical unities) are useful, but true greatness comes from natural genius (e.g., Shakespeare).

·         Catharsis: Not explicitly discussed, but Dryden accepts Aristotle’s notion of purging emotions through pity and fear.

·         Practical criticism: Dryden applies theory to actual dramatists, not abstract speculation.

5. Key Quotations

·         Lisideius describes a play as a "just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humours" for "delight and instruction of mankind". “Imitation of nature is the chief end of the poet.”

·         Crites portrays Ben Jonson as an imitator and "learned plagiary" of ancient writers.

·         Neander distinguishes Shakespeare's natural genius, calling him "the Homer...of our dramatic poets." He says for Shakespeare and Jonson that "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare".

6. Importance of the Essay

·         First major work of literary criticism in English.

·         Establishes comparative criticism (ancient vs modern, French vs English).

·         Advocates a liberal humanist view: rules matter, but genius and audience delight matter more.

·         Balances neoclassical discipline with English dramatic freedom.

7. Critical Reception & Legacy

·         Seen as a landmark in English criticism.

·         Influenced Augustan critics (Pope, Johnson).

·         Dryden’s defense of Shakespeare paved the way for later Romantic critics.

·         Shows early modern England’s search for a national literary identity.

Relevance in Present Day Perspective

1. Comparative Criticism

·         Dryden set up a model of evaluating texts by comparing ancients vs moderns, French vs English.

·         Today, comparative literature and cross-cultural analysis follow the same method.

·         Modern scholars often place Shakespeare next to Ibsen, Brecht, or Indian dramatists—the same spirit of comparative inquiry Dryden pioneered.

2. Rules vs Creativity Debate

·         Dryden asked: Should writers follow strict rules (Aristotle, French unities), or should they trust creative genius (like Shakespeare)?

·         This debate continues today in:

o    Creative writing pedagogy: Should students stick to “forms” or experiment?

o    Cinema/Drama: Formulaic genres vs experimental narratives.

·         Dryden’s flexible answer (“rules help, but genius matters more”) still resonates in art and literature studies.

3. National vs Global Literature

·         Dryden defended English drama against French classical models.

·         Today, nations still wrestle with balancing local/national literary identity against global or Western standards.

·         Example: Indian English theatre vs Western drama traditions.

4. Mixed Genres and Hybridity

·         Dryden praised English drama for blending tragedy and comedy (tragi-comedy).

·         Modern literature and media are full of hybrids: tragicomedies, dramedies, magic realism, postmodern pastiche.

·         Dryden’s defense of “mixture” anticipates today’s embrace of genre-fluid storytelling.

5. Criticism as Dialogue

·         The essay is in dialogue form, not a rigid treatise.

·         This conversational, plural-voiced style mirrors contemporary critical practices, which value dialogue, diversity of perspectives, and debate rather than absolute authority.

6. Practical Criticism

·         Dryden discusses actual writers (Shakespeare, Jonson, Fletcher), not just abstract rules.

·         This approach—close reading + practical examples—is central to modern literary criticism and pedagogy.

7. The Role of Drama in Society

·         Dryden emphasized that drama should delight and instruct.

·         Today, debates on literature’s purpose (entertainment vs education, art vs ideology) echo the same tension.

·         For instance: Is Netflix drama just entertainment, or can it also be socially instructive?

8. Legacy in Literary Theory

·         Dryden paved the way for later critics (Johnson, Coleridge, Arnold, Eliot).

·         His balancing act between classicism and creativity foreshadows later theoretical debates (structuralism vs poststructuralism, tradition vs innovation).

Conclusion

The relevance of Dryden’s Essay on Dramatic Poesy lies in its timeless questions:

·         Should art follow rules or break them?

·         What is the balance between national tradition and global influence?

·         What is the purpose of drama: pleasure, instruction, or both?

These remain the central debates of literary and cultural criticism today, making Dryden’s essay not just a Restoration document but a living text in critical theory.

 Very Short Answer Type Questions (1–2 lines)

Q1. In which year was An Essay on Dramatic Poesy published?
Ans. It was published in 1668 during the Restoration period.

Q2. Who are the four speakers in the dialogue?
Ans. Crites, Eugenius, Lisideius, and Neander (Dryden’s persona).

Q3. What is the main aim of the essay?
Ans. To defend the value of drama and establish the worth of English drama.

Q4. Which dramatist does Dryden praise as having the “largest and most comprehensive soul”?
Ans. William Shakespeare.

Q5. Who among the characters defends French drama?
Ans. Lisideius.

Q6. What dramatic principle does Crites support?
Ans. He supports the authority of the ancients and classical rules.

Q7. What is Dryden’s view on rhyme in drama?
Ans. He supports rhyme, claiming it adds decorum, elevation, and delight.

Q8. Which literary war forms the backdrop of the essay?
Ans. The Second Dutch War (1665).

Q9. What two functions of drama does Dryden emphasize?
Ans. Drama should both delight and instruct.

Q10. What is the form of An Essay on Dramatic Poesy?
Ans. A dialogue in prose.

Short Answer Type Questions (3–5 sentences)

Q1. What is the central debate in An Essay on Dramatic Poesy?
Ans. The central debate concerns whether ancient dramatists are superior to moderns, and whether French drama, which follows strict classical rules, is better than English drama, which mixes comedy and tragedy. Through the dialogue, Dryden presents multiple perspectives but ultimately defends English drama.

Q2. How does Dryden (through Neander) defend English drama?
Ans. Neander argues that English drama better imitates real life by blending tragedy and comedy. He praises the use of subplots and variety, which makes English plays more engaging and emotionally powerful. He defends Shakespeare as a genius who transcends rigid rules.

Q3. What role does the debate on rhyme vs blank verse play in the essay?
Ans. Dryden, through Neander, defends the use of rhyme in serious plays, arguing it adds structure, elegance, and delight. Critics of rhyme, however, see it as artificial compared to blank verse. The debate reflects Restoration experiments with rhymed heroic plays.

Q4. Why is An Essay on Dramatic Poesy considered important in English criticism?
Ans. It is the first major critical work in English literature that applies comparative criticism. Dryden combines classical authority with practical analysis of contemporary playwrights, creating a foundation for modern literary criticism.

Q5. What is the relevance of the essay today?
Ans. The essay raises timeless issues—rules vs creativity, national vs global literary standards, the purpose of art, and the value of genre hybridity. These debates continue in contemporary literature, theatre, and film, making Dryden’s criticism still significant.

Long Answer Type Question

Q. Critically examine Dryden’s An Essay on Dramatic Poesy as a defence of English drama.

Answer

Introduction
John Dryden’s An Essay on Dramatic Poesy (1668) is the first significant work of English literary criticism. Written in dialogue form, it presents four interlocutors—Crites, Eugenius, Lisideius, and Neander—who debate the relative merits of ancient, modern, French, and English drama. While the essay engages with classical rules and neoclassical ideals, it ultimately serves as Dryden’s defence of the richness and vitality of English theatre.

1. Ancients vs Moderns

·         Crites defends the ancients, insisting they established the permanent rules of drama.

·         Eugenius counters by claiming that modern dramatists surpass the ancients in plot construction, characterization, and natural dialogue.

·         Through this debate, Dryden situates English drama as an heir to tradition but not bound by it.

2. French vs English Drama

·         Lisideius praises French drama for its strict adherence to the three unities of time, place, and action, its elegance, and its moral refinement.

·         Neander, Dryden’s mouthpiece, defends English drama for its freedom, variety, and truth to life.

·         He praises the English practice of mixing tragedy with comedy, the use of subplots, and the emotional power of dramatists like Shakespeare and Fletcher.

·         Shakespeare, according to Dryden, had the “largest and most comprehensive soul,” whose genius outweighed technical irregularities.

3. Debate on Rhyme in Drama

·         A central concern of Restoration drama was whether plays should be written in rhyme or blank verse.

·         Neander argues for rhyme in serious drama, claiming it adds structure, polish, and delight, though he admits it must not sound forced.

·         This shows Dryden’s attempt to adapt classical principles to contemporary English tastes.

4. Purpose of Drama

·         Dryden asserts that the purpose of drama is both delight and instruction (Horatian principle).

·         English plays, though less regular, achieve this by appealing directly to human nature and emotions, thus effecting a deeper impact on audiences.

5. Critical Significance

·         The essay is not dogmatic; instead, it presents multiple perspectives and concludes with a balanced defence of English theatre.

·         It is practical criticism: Dryden evaluates real playwrights (Shakespeare, Jonson, Fletcher) rather than abstract theory.

·         It marks a transition in English criticism, blending classical respect with modern flexibility.

Conclusion

An Essay on Dramatic Poesy is Dryden’s attempt to reconcile classical authority with the creative vitality of English drama. By defending English dramatists’ freedom, variety, and emotional power against the rigidities of French neoclassicism, Dryden articulates a vision of literature that values both rules and genius. The essay thus remains a landmark in English criticism and a precursor to later debates about art’s function, rules, and national literary identity.

Small Towns and the River by Mamang Dai

Small Towns and the River

Small towns always remind me of death.
My hometown lies calmly amidst the trees,
it is always the same,
in summer or winter,
with the dust flying,
or the wind howling down the gorge.

Just the other day someone died.
In the dreadful silence we wept
looking at the sad wreath of tuberoses.
Life and death, life and death,
only the rituals are permanent.

The river has a soul.
In the summer it cuts through the land
like a torrent of grief. Sometimes,
sometimes, I think it holds its breath
seeking a land of fish and stars

The river has a soul.
It knows, stretching past the town,
from the first drop of rain to dry earth
and mist on the mountaintops,
the river knows
the immortality of water.

A shrine of happy pictures
marks the days of childhood.
Small towns grow with anxiety
for the future.
The dead are placed pointing west.
When the soul rises
it will walk into the golden east,
into the house of the sun.

In the cool bamboo,
restored in sunlight,
life matters, like this.

In small towns by the river

we all want to walk with the gods. 

Critical Appreciation

Introduction

Mamang Dai, one of the most prominent contemporary poets from Arunachal Pradesh, writes deeply reflective poetry that weaves together nature, memory, tradition, and mortality. Small Towns and Rivers is among her most widely read poems, known for its haunting meditation on life, death, and the eternal continuity of nature. The poem blends personal nostalgia with a universal reflection on human impermanence, making it a fine example of postcolonial Indian English poetry rooted in regional experience yet resonating with universal themes.

Theme

1. Mortality and Transience – The poem begins with the striking line “Small towns always remind me of death,” foregrounding the central theme of human mortality. Life in small towns is quiet, cyclical, and closely tied to death rituals and ancestral memory.
2. Permanence of Nature vs. Fragility of Human Life – While human life is transient, rivers, trees, and landscapes endure. Nature becomes a silent witness to generations of human existence.
3. Memory and Belonging – The poet’s hometown and its surrounding environment evoke a sense of nostalgia and rootedness. The poem reflects the intimate relationship between the poet’s identity and her landscape.
4. Tradition and Spirituality – Rivers in tribal cosmology are often associated with origins, purification, and the passage of life into death. The poem suggests an almost spiritual reverence for natural elements.

Structure

• The poem is written in free verse, without a fixed rhyme or meter, which allows the natural flow of thought and imagery.
• The structure mirrors the meditative movement of memory—moving from the observation of small towns, to the landscape, to deeper reflections on mortality.
• The lack of rigid stanza divisions conveys continuity, much like the flow of rivers and the cycle of life and death.

Style and Language

• Mamang Dai’s style is minimalist, lyrical, and contemplative. She uses plain, direct language that carries profound emotional weight.
• There is a strong sense of landscape poetics—nature is not just background but an active presence shaping thought and emotion.
• The tone is introspective and elegiac, but not despairing; it accepts mortality as part of the natural cycle.

Poetic Devices

1. Imagery – Vivid natural images such as “amidst the trees,” “dust flying,” and “wind howling down the gorge” capture the stark beauty of the poet’s landscape.
2. Symbolism –
• Small towns symbolize rootedness, continuity, and also the inevitability of death.
• River symbolize permanence of nature, cycle of life, connection between nature and people.
• Dust and wind symbolize unchanging nature of small towns.
3. Contrast – The permanence of nature contrasts with the impermanence of human life.
4. Personification – Nature is given human-like qualities e.g. sad wreath, wind howling, river has a soul, small town grow with anxiety for future
5. Repetition – Phrases like ”life and death” and “sometimes” emphasize the idea and add musicality to the poem.
6. Transferred Epithet – Sadness, which is a human quality, has been associated with wreath i.e. “Sad wreath”.
7. Refrain – It adds to the continuity and recalls the theme of the poem e.g. “The river has a soul.”

Tone and Mood

• Tone: Meditative, nostalgic, philosophical, tinged with melancholy but not hopeless.
• Mood: The reader experiences a quiet, contemplative mood, evoking both a sense of loss and acceptance. It creates an atmosphere where memory, death, and nature converge into harmony.

Conclusion

Small Towns and Rivers is a profound meditation on life and death, rooted in the poet’s cultural memory and natural landscape. Mamang Dai transforms the quiet imagery of small towns and rivers into symbols of permanence and continuity, reminding us that while human existence is fleeting, nature endures. The poem’s free verse form, lyrical imagery, and reflective tone make it both intimate and universal. In its quiet simplicity, it carries immense philosophical depth, offering readers a poignant reminder of the fragile beauty of life and the eternal flow of nature.

Summary

Mamang Dai’s Small Towns and Rivers is a reflective and meditative poem that explores the relationship between human life, mortality, nature, and spirituality in small-town settings. The poem moves through personal memory, communal experiences, and natural imagery to convey profound truths about life, death, and continuity.

The poem begins with the poet observing small towns, noting that their quietness and unchanging nature evoke thoughts of death. Her hometown, calm and rooted amidst trees, appears the same across seasons, yet the flying dust and howling wind remind her of the fragility of human life. Life passes, but the land and natural elements endure, serving as witnesses to the cycles of existence.

Dai then recounts a recent death in the town, portraying communal grief through the image of people weeping over a wreath of tuberoses. Here, the poet reflects on the inevitability of death and the fleeting nature of life, emphasizing that while individual lives are temporary, cultural rituals surrounding death are enduring.

The river emerges as a central symbol, endowed with a soul and consciousness. In summer it cuts through the land “like a torrent of grief,” yet at times it appears to pause, reflecting longing and continuity. The river knows the full cycle of rain, mist, and flowing water, symbolizing the immortality of nature in contrast to human mortality. It mirrors grief, continuity, and the eternal rhythms of life.

The poem also explores childhood, memory, and spirituality. Childhood is preserved as a “shrine of happy pictures,” while small towns live with anxieties about the future. Death is ritualized—bodies are placed pointing west, allowing the soul to rise toward the east, the “house of the sun,” symbolizing renewal and immortality. Through these cultural practices, life and death are connected, and continuity is maintained across generations.

In the final stanzas, Dai celebrates the simple, restorative moments in nature, like walking in sunlight among bamboo or beside the river. Life gains meaning through quiet reflection, connection with the natural world, and spiritual aspiration. The poem closes on a note of harmony, suggesting that in small towns, humans, nature, and the divine coexist in a rhythm of life, death, and renewal.

 

Explanation

Stanza 1

Small towns always remind me of death.
My hometown lies calmly amidst the trees,
it is always the same,
in summer or winter,
with the dust flying,
or the wind howling down the gorge.

In this stanza from Mamang Dai’s Small Towns and Rivers, the poet reflects on the deep connection between small towns and the inevitability of death. The opening line, “Small towns always remind me of death,” immediately establishes a contemplative mood, suggesting that the quiet and unchanging rhythm of small-town life constantly evokes an awareness of mortality. She then turns to a vivid description of her hometown, which “lies calmly amidst the trees,” a picture of stability and rootedness in nature. Despite the passage of time and the change of seasons, the town remains essentially the same, embodying a sense of timeless permanence that contrasts with the fleeting span of human life. The images of “dust flying” and the “wind howling down the gorge” introduce the raw forces of nature, symbolizing impermanence, decay, and the haunting inevitability of death. While the trees and seasonal sameness suggest continuity, the dust and wind remind us of transience. Taken together, the stanza highlights the coexistence of permanence and fragility, showing how the poet’s hometown, though calm and enduring, is a constant reminder of the cycle of life and death.

Stanza 2

Just the other day someone died.
In the dreadful silence we wept
looking at the sad wreath of tuberoses.
Life and death, life and death,
only the rituals are permanent.

The stanza begins with the simple yet stark statement, “Just the other day someone died.” This directness reflects how death is a familiar and almost routine presence in small-town life. Unlike in cities, where death is often hidden or distanced, here it is close, communal, and deeply felt. The line grounds the poem in lived reality, moving from abstract meditation to a specific event.

The next line, “In the dreadful silence we wept,” captures the collective mourning of the community. The “dreadful silence” suggests both grief and the overwhelming stillness that follows death, emphasizing the emotional weight of the moment.

The image that follows, “looking at the sad wreath of tuberoses,” combines beauty with sorrow. Tuberoses, often used in funeral wreaths in India, symbolize both purity and death. Their fragrance lingers, reminding mourners of the deceased, but here they are described as “sad,” showing how objects of beauty become infused with grief in the context of loss.

The repeated line, “Life and death, life and death,” acts almost like a refrain, echoing the cycle of existence. It underlines the inevitability of death as a counterpart to life and suggests that human existence is bound to this endless rhythm.

Finally, the closing line, “only the rituals are permanent,” conveys a profound truth: while individual lives pass away, what endures are the rituals, traditions, and cultural practices surrounding life and death. These rituals create continuity across generations, linking the living and the dead, and giving meaning to human existence despite its transience.

 Stanza 3

The river has a soul.
In the summer it cuts through the land
like a torrent of grief. Sometimes,
sometimes, I think it holds its breath
seeking a land of fish and stars

The stanza begins with the declaration, “The river has a soul.” Here, the poet personifies the river, attributing to it a living essence or spirit. In many indigenous traditions, including those of Arunachal Pradesh (Mamang Dai’s homeland), rivers are considered sacred, carrying within them ancestral memory, spiritual power, and continuity. By giving the river a soul, the poet emphasizes its role as more than a natural element—it becomes a witness to human existence, a force that connects life, death, and eternity.

The next line, “In the summer it cuts through the land / like a torrent of grief,” employs a powerful simile. The river, swollen and forceful in summer, becomes an image of grief overwhelming the land, much like sorrow overwhelms the human heart. The cutting motion suggests both destruction and permanence—just as grief leaves scars on the soul, the river carves its mark into the landscape.

The following lines, “Sometimes, / sometimes, I think it holds its breath,” give the river a human-like quality of pausing, waiting, or suspending itself. This personification suggests that the river, like humans, experiences longing or anticipation, reinforcing its symbolic role as a living entity. The repetition of “sometimes” creates a rhythm of hesitation, echoing the meditative tone of the poem.

Finally, the poet imagines, “seeking a land of fish and stars.” This is a deeply symbolic image. The “land of fish” points to abundance, sustenance, and continuity of life, while “stars” signify transcendence, dreams, and the eternal. Together, the phrase suggests a spiritual destination beyond ordinary existence—an imagined realm where the river’s soul journeys, just as humans hope for peace or fulfillment beyond death.

  Stanza 4

The river has a soul.
It knows, stretching past the town,
from the first drop of rain to dry earth
and mist on the mountaintops,
the river knows
the immortality of water.

The stanza opens with the line, “The river has a soul.” This is a continuation of the earlier image, but here the emphasis is on the river’s consciousness and wisdom. The river is not only a natural element but a living presence that carries memory, continuity, and meaning for the community and for human life in general.

The next lines, “It knows, stretching past the town, / from the first drop of rain to dry earth / and mist on the mountaintops,” describe the river’s intimate connection with the entire cycle of nature. The river is portrayed as a witness that spans vast distances and connects diverse elements—town, rain, dry soil, and mountaintop mist. It symbolizes unity and continuity, linking the local (the town) to the cosmic (the mountaintops, the rain cycle). The personification of the river as something that “knows” makes it a bearer of timeless wisdom, something beyond human perception.

The repetition in “the river knows / the immortality of water” brings the stanza to its philosophical core. Here, Mamang Dai suggests that while human lives are short and transient, water is eternal—it evaporates, condenses, flows, and returns in an endless cycle. The river, therefore, embodies immortality, permanence, and renewal. This contrasts sharply with human mortality, where only rituals endure, as the earlier stanza noted. For the poet, the river symbolizes continuity across generations, a natural force that transcends death and speaks of eternity.

 Stanza 5

A shrine of happy pictures
marks the days of childhood.
Small towns grow with anxiety
for the future.
The dead are placed pointing west.
When the soul rises
it will walk into the golden east,
into the house of the sun.

The stanza begins with the line, “A shrine of happy pictures / marks the days of childhood.” Here, the poet recalls memory and nostalgia. Childhood is preserved like a “shrine,” suggesting something sacred, cherished, and untouchable. The “happy pictures” symbolize innocence and joy, but the word shrine also hints at remembrance of what is past and cannot return, reinforcing the poem’s theme of impermanence.

The next lines, “Small towns grow with anxiety / for the future,” highlight the contrast between the calm permanence of nature and the restless concerns of human society. While childhood memories feel sacred and eternal, real life in small towns is filled with uncertainty, limited opportunities, and fears about survival or progress. The phrase underscores the human struggle between the comfort of rootedness and the pressure of time and change.

The lines, “The dead are placed pointing west. / When the soul rises / it will walk into the golden east, / into the house of the sun,” draw from cultural and spiritual symbolism. In many traditions, including some in Arunachal Pradesh, the west is associated with the setting sun, decline, and death, while the east—where the sun rises—symbolizes renewal, immortality, and transcendence. The practice of laying the dead facing west signifies that the soul, upon rising, will move toward the east, into the light and warmth of the sun, which is here called “the house of the sun.” This imagery connects death not with an end but with a spiritual journey toward eternity.

  Stanza 6

In the cool bamboo,
restored in sunlight,
life matters, like this.

In small towns by the river
we all want to walk with the gods.

The stanza begins with the lines, “In the cool bamboo, / restored in sunlight, / life matters, like this.” The poet draws attention to the quiet, restorative power of nature. The cool bamboo and sunlight create an image of calm, rejuvenation, and simplicity. Life, in such moments, is felt deeply and meaningfully—not through achievement or rush, but through the peaceful, natural rhythms that small-town living and nature provide. The phrase “life matters, like this” suggests that existence gains significance in its connection with the natural world and in these small, intimate experiences.

The next lines, “In small towns by the river / we all want to walk with the gods,” extend this reflection to spirituality. The river, earlier depicted as possessing a soul and immortality, becomes a site where humans aspire to connect with the divine. “Walking with the gods” implies harmony with nature, tradition, and spiritual forces, suggesting that in small towns, life is intertwined with reverence, ritual, and a sense of sacredness. The poem celebrates this holistic way of living—where human life, nature, and the divine are inseparable.