Understanding Poststructuralism: A Critical Perspective on Meaning and Knowledge

Poststructuralism is a broad intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily in France, as a reaction against the perceived limitations of structuralism. While structuralism sought to uncover the underlying structures that govern human culture, language, and thought, poststructuralism questioned the very stability and objectivity of these structures. It introduced a radical skepticism about meaning, identity, and truth, emphasizing the fluid, contingent, and constructed nature of knowledge.

Origins and Context

Poststructuralism developed in the 1960s and 1970s, influenced by structuralist thinkers such as Ferdinand de Saussure, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Roland Barthes. However, it diverged significantly from structuralism’s goal of identifying universal systems of meaning. Instead, poststructuralists challenged the idea that meaning is fixed or that language can represent reality in a straightforward way.

The political and social upheavals of the 1960s, including the May 1968 protests in France, also played a critical role in shaping poststructuralist thought. These events fueled a growing mistrust of grand narratives, institutional authority, and the idea of objective knowledge—concerns central to poststructuralist critique.

Core Concepts of Poststructuralism

1. Decentering the Subject

Poststructuralism argues that the human subject is not a stable, autonomous entity. Rather, individuals are constituted through language, discourse, and social structures. This critique undermines the Enlightenment notion of a rational, self-determining subject.

In classical philosophy (especially from Descartes onward), the human subject was believed to be:

A rational center of consciousness.
Capable of objective knowledge and self-determination.
An originator of meaning—the “I” who thinks, speaks, and acts independently.

This view made the subject the foundation for truth, knowledge, and moral agency.

But the Poststructuralists challenge this by showing that the subject:

Is constructed, not natural.
Is produced by language, not prior to it.
Is embedded in power structures and shaped by social, historical, and discursive forces.

In this view, the subject is not the origin of meaning, but a product of systems of meaning—such as language, ideology, and culture.

Key Thinkers on Decentred Subject:

Jacques Derrida: Argued that meaning is not fixed and originates not from a central self, but from the endless play of differences within language. The subject is caught in this web of signifiers.

Michel Foucault: Saw the subject as produced by discourse and institutions—for example, the way schools, prisons, or medical practices shape individuals' identities. He famously said, “the subject is not given, but constituted.”

Roland Barthes: Declared the “death of the author”, meaning that the authority of the author (as a centered subject) is irrelevant to interpreting a text. The focus shifts to the reader and the network of meanings activated in reading.

2. Language as Constructed and Unstable

Building on Saussure’s theory of signs, poststructuralists emphasize the arbitrariness of the relationship between signifier (word) and signified (concept). They argue that meaning is not inherent but emerges through difference and context, making language inherently unstable and open to multiple interpretations.

Ferdinand de Saussure, who viewed language as a system of signs made up of two parts:

Signifier: the word or sound.
Signified: the concept or idea the word represents.

Saussure emphasized that the relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary—there is no natural connection between a word and its meaning. This insight is central to poststructuralist thought.

Poststructuralists take this further by arguing that meanings are not fixed by the structure itself, but are contingent on context, culture, and historical moment. Language does not passively reflect reality; it actively constructs it. Words don’t have stable meanings—they gain meaning through difference from other words, and these meanings can shift across time and usage.

3. Deconstruction

Developed by Jacques Derrida, deconstruction is a method of reading texts that reveals the contradictions and assumptions embedded within them. Derrida demonstrated that texts often undermine their own claims to coherence and authority, making absolute meaning impossible.

Deconstruction emerged in the 1960s and 70s as a response to structuralism, which sought to analyze human culture through deep, stable structures—especially linguistic systems.

While Derrida was influenced by structuralists like Ferdinand de Saussure, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Roland Barthes, he challenged their belief in the stability of meaning. Deconstruction is often described as a poststructuralist approach, as it questions the foundational principles of structuralism itself.

It also draws from, and critiques, a long tradition of Western metaphysics—from Plato to Descartes to Husserl—particularly the tendency to privilege presence, origin, unity, and logos (rational discourse).

Key Concepts in Deconstruction

A. Binary Opposition

Derrida observed that Western thought often relies on binary oppositions: mind/body, reason/emotion, speech/writing, presence/absence, male/female. These binaries are not neutral—they are hierarchical, with one term valued over the other.

Deconstruction reveals these hierarchies and works to destabilize them. For example:

Speech is often privileged over writing, seen as more authentic.
Reason is valued over emotion, associated with objectivity.

Deconstruction disrupts these binaries, showing how the “secondary” term is essential to the “primary,” and how meaning arises from their interplay.

B. Différance

A key term coined by Derrida, différance (a play on the French words différer: to differ and to defer) encapsulates the instability of meaning.

To differ: Meaning comes not from a word’s direct relation to a thing, but from its difference from other words.
To defer: Meaning is always postponed; no sign can fully capture or deliver its meaning immediately.

Thus, meaning is never fully present; it is always in flux, always deferred, always produced through a system of differences.

C. Logocentricism & Metaphysics of Presence

Derrida critiques logocentrism—the Western philosophical tradition’s privileging of logos (reason, word, or speech) as the source of meaning and truth. This is tied to the “metaphysics of presence,” the belief that truth and meaning are most authentic when they are immediate and present.

Deconstruction shows that writing, absence, and difference are just as fundamental as presence. It undermines the idea that there can be a pure, original meaning outside of textual mediation.

D. Textuality and Intertextuality

For deconstruction, everything is text—not in the narrow literary sense, but as a network of signs and meanings. There is no outside or ultimate ground to a text; it refers only to other texts and signs in an intertextual web.

Derrida famously said: “Il n’y a pas de hors-texte” ("There is no outside-text").

* Deconstructive Reading: How It Works

Deconstruction is not about destroying meaning or claiming that interpretation is impossible. Instead, it reads texts against themselves to reveal their internal tensions and contradictions. A typical deconstructive reading involves:

Identifying binary oppositions in a text.
Reversing or troubling the hierarchy between these oppositions.
Tracing how the text undermines its own claims—for example, where it contradicts itself, relies on unstable terms, or suppresses alternative meanings.
Opening the text to alternative readings and possibilities.

A deconstructive reading shows that texts don’t deliver fixed meanings but instead generate multiple, shifting, and unstable interpretations.

* Common Misconceptions about Deconstruciton

❌ “Deconstruction is just destroying or rejecting meaning.”

✅ Not true: Deconstruction doesn’t destroy meaning—it multiplies it. It reveals that meaning is complex, contextual, and never final.

❌ “Deconstruction says anything goes.”

✅ No. Deconstruction is a rigorous method of reading and analysis. It doesn't support total relativism, but it challenges authoritarian or absolute claims to truth.

❌ “Deconstruction means texts are meaningless.”

✅ Quite the opposite. Texts are overflowing with meaning, which is why they can be read and interpreted in so many different ways.

4. Power and Knowledge

Michel Foucault’s theory of power and knowledge challenges traditional understandings of both concepts. Rather than seeing power as something imposed from above or knowledge as an objective pursuit of truth, Foucault reveals how the two are deeply intertwined. For him, knowledge is not separate from power; rather, power produces knowledge and knowledge reinforces power.

This idea is foundational to Foucault’s broader philosophical project, which includes the analysis of institutions (like prisons, hospitals, and schools), social norms, identity formation, and systems of control.

Traditional Views Vs. Foucault's View

Traditionally, power was understood as something wielded by institutions, governments, or rulers—something people had or lacked. Knowledge, on the other hand, was seen as a neutral tool for discovering objective truth.

Foucault turns this idea on its head:

Power is not only repressive; it is also productive.
Knowledge is not neutral; it is shaped by and shapes power relations.
There is no such thing as pure knowledge, free from power.

He famously stated:

“Power and knowledge directly imply one another… there is no power relation without the correlative constitution of a field of knowledge.”

Power:

Foucault’s concept of power is diffuse, relational, and everywhere. It is not held by a person or group but operates through networks and relationships. Key features of Foucault’s power:

Power is everywhere: It operates in everyday interactions, language, institutions, and cultural norms.
Power is productive: It doesn’t just repress—it creates knowledge, subjects, disciplines, and norms.
Power is relational: It exists in relationships, not as a possession.

Rather than asking who has power, Foucault focuses on how power operates and through what mechanisms.

Knowledge:

For Foucault, knowledge is not simply about facts or truth; it is constructed through discourses—structured ways of speaking, thinking, and organizing the world. These discourses define what counts as truth, who can speak, and what is considered normal or deviant.

For example:

Medical knowledge defines what is a disease, who is sick, and how they should be treated.
Legal knowledge defines what is a crime, who is a criminal, and how justice is administered. Such knowledge is not neutral; it reflects and reinforces power structures. Power/ Knowledge: The Fusion

The term “power/knowledge” is used by Foucault to stress that knowledge and power are not separate domains. Instead, knowledge is a form of power, and power generates knowledge.

Examples of Power/Knowledge:

The prison system: Institutions like prisons not only punish—they produce knowledge about deviance, reform, and criminal behavior. Surveillance itself becomes a tool of knowledge production.
Schools: Education is not just about learning but about disciplining bodies, instilling norms, and producing docile, obedient citizens.
Psychiatry: Mental illness is not just discovered; it is defined and constructed by discourses of psychiatry, which classify and treat individuals, shaping their self-understanding.

Discipline & Surveillance

In Discipline and Punish (1975), Foucault shows how modern power works through surveillance, discipline, and normalization rather than brute force. The Panopticon, an architectural design for a prison where inmates can be watched without knowing whether they are being observed, becomes a metaphor for modern society.

Through surveillance:

Individuals internalize discipline and self-regulate.
Power becomes more efficient and invisible.
Knowledge about individuals is gathered to control and categorize them.

Bio-Power & Management of Population

In his later work, Foucault introduces the concept of bio-power—a form of power that manages life itself, including health, reproduction, mortality, and sexuality.

States exercise bio-power through statistics, health systems, birth control, and sanitation.
Power becomes entwined with biology, defining what constitutes a healthy or productive life.

Bio-power demonstrates how power/knowledge operates at both the individual and population levels.

Implications of Foucault's Theory

Knowledge is Political

All forms of knowledge—science, medicine, psychology, education—are entangled with power. They shape how people see the world and themselves.

Resistance is Possible

Power is not absolute. Wherever there is power, there is resistance. Foucault’s theory helps people become aware of hidden structures of control and opens space for counter-discourses.

Rethinking Institutions & Norms

Foucault urges us to question the “truths” we take for granted—about crime, health, gender, sexuality, and more. He invites us to see how norms are produced and how they can be challenged.

5. Intertextuality

Poststructuralists argue that texts are not isolated but are part of a network of references, influences, and allusions. Meaning is thus produced not within a single text but across a web of interrelated texts.

Key Thinkers

Jacques Derrida: Known for deconstruction and critiques of logocentrism (the privileging of speech over writing).
Michel Foucault: Explored the relationship between knowledge and power, and the historical construction of subjects.
Roland Barthes: Declared the “death of the author” to highlight the role of the reader in generating meaning.
Julia Kristeva: Introduced the concept of intertextuality and worked on the semiotic aspects of language.
Jean Baudrillard: Critiqued contemporary society’s simulation of reality, suggesting that we live in a world of hyperreality.

Influence and Legacy

Poststructuralism has had a profound impact on a wide range of disciplines, including:

Literary theory: It transformed textual analysis by emphasizing ambiguity, contradiction, and the role of the reader.
Philosophy: It challenged foundationalist approaches to epistemology and metaphysics.
Cultural studies: It influenced analyses of identity, race, gender, and sexuality, helping to launch postmodern and postcolonial critiques.
Sociology and political theory: It offered new tools for understanding power dynamics, subjectivity, and resistance.

Criticisms

Poststructuralism has also faced significant criticism. Some argue that its relativism leads to nihilism or political paralysis. Others contend that its dense language and abstract concepts render it inaccessible. Yet, even critics often acknowledge the movement’s importance in questioning taken-for-granted assumptions and exposing hidden structures of meaning and control.

Conclusion

Poststructuralism is not a unified doctrine but a diverse array of approaches that question the stability of meaning, identity, and truth. Rather than offering clear answers, it provides tools for critical analysis, encouraging us to interrogate the ways in which knowledge, language, and power shape our world. Whether embraced or contested, poststructuralism remains a central force in contemporary thought.

Nair's the English Ocean

Poststructuralism